Education 504 Psychology of Education Winter 2024 - Institutional Effectiveness

Major Theorists (Scholars)

"John  B. Watson (1878-1958) - thought people learned through their actions, not their thoughts/motivations. 
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) - believed learning was a result of conditioning with positive and negative consequences (operant conditioning).  
- Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) -  similar to Skinner's beliefs; however, Pavlov believed the learning was voluntary (classical conditioning). "

Key Concepts

Specific stimuli elicts certain responses. Watson focused around the responses on certain stimuli, whereas Skinner beleived it was the background, or environment that effected the situation. BF Skinner is often considered the leading member behind Operant Conditioning (which is is behavior that is shaped by an established connection between stimuli and that). Classical Conditioning (primarily developed by Pavlov) has a connection between an involuntary response and stimuli.

"Behaviorism as a theory implies 'Readers are only responding to stimuli,'" making learners a passive recipient whose thoughts, ideas, and motivations are irrelevant to the learning process (Aldhanhani & Abu-Ayyash, 2020, p.381).

Classical Conditioning - the involuntary association between a stimulus and a response. 
Operant Conditioning - the voluntary association between a stimulus and response. 
- reinforcement is used to increase or decrease the behavior. 
Type of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, continuous, intermittent, extinguishing "

https://sbccimplementationkits.org/sbcc-in-emergencies/social-cognitive-learning-theory/

Behaviorism as a theory implies "Readers are only responding to stimuli," making learners a passive recipient whose thoughts, ideas, and motivations are irrelevant to the learning process (Aldhanhani & Abu-Ayyash, 2020, p.381). 

Classical Conditioning - the involuntary association between a stimulus and a response. 

Operant Conditioning - the voluntary association between a stimulus and response. 
- reinforcement is used to increase or decrease the behavior. 
Type of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, continuous, intermittent, extinguishing 

Examples in Practice or contexts in which it would be helpful

Positive Reinforcement: Something is added to increase desired behavior- complement student on good behavior; Negative Reinforcement: Something is removed to increase desired behavior - Homework pass for turning in all work; Positive Punishment: Something is added to decrease undesired behavior - Detention for not following rules; Negative Punishment: Something is removed to decrease undesired behavior - Miss time at recess for not following rules This is a tool for classroom management procedures. Raising a hand for students to quiet down for teaching to begin would be an example in the classroom.

Utilizing theory to address educational problems in higher ed student recruitment context, specifically engagement:
Encouraging engagement from students over whom I have no authority as a visitor in their classroom and someone who wants them to look more closely at my institution. With behaviorism, I can prompt desired behaviors with external stimuli, i.e. incentivizing paying attention and actively engaging with quiz questions and prizes for right answers as well as offering any answer at all.

Positive Reinforcement for Student Motivation: Raffles (used as positive feedback and recognition through instruction), positive feedback, Blooket /Kahoot Game (great for reinforcement and reward), PBIS points. Negative Reinforcement-Consequences: disqualifying from raffles, games, PBIS points, call home, referrals, unable to participate in school sports and clubs. 

1) A classroom token economy (positive reinforcement) , time-outs, HW consequences, PBIS (positive behavior intervention strategies) 2) giving students the opportunity to receive information in/out of the classroom, draw conclusions, and retrieve information 3) Apprenticeship and on the job training 4) Encouraging self-motivation, increased engagement, and self-exploration

Rewards/punishments – depends on student’s stimulus and response/associations made Example: Our school started to use a school-wide "signal" to get everyone's attention/have students become quiet - when we (adults) say "time-out" all students stop what they are doing and hold up a "t" sign with their two hands. To get this started, we used a lot a praise and encouragement to get everyone to follow along every time we did it. By using positive praise such as, "Thank you, Johnny!" or "Sarah, you did an awesome job," it helped conditioned students to appropriately listen and display the signal. With a gradual release of these positive reinforcements, this has become second nature to all students in our building. Another example from my own classroom is when we are starting out in the beginning of the school year with our spelling lessons, I need all of my students to be engaged with "pounding and spelling" out our words. I pass out Starbursts during those lessons to students who are participating and following directions appropriately. Other students see the Starbursts as a positive stimulus to following the directions and soon follow suit in hopes of also getting one. I do this just enough in the beginning of the year for a couple weeks in a row, and eventually all of my students are doing the "pounding and spelling" because they know that is what is expected of them and the Starbursts are no longer needed.

Limitations

This theory reduces learners to being primarily passive recipients of information, negating everything to do with their thoughts, ideas, and any motivations they might have. Only that which is observable is considered worthy of study/analysis. Clearly, this excludes many variables known to be valuable in understanding learners and the manner in which they receive instructional content, such as assessing background knowledge. 
-It ignores the internal aspect and oversimplifies behavior
-It suggests there is no free will
-It does not address behavior without external stimuli
"Principles of conditioning are not universal" (Zhou & Brown, 2015, p. 10)

Approach does not consider cognitive processes or emotions. It is powerful for behavior management, but the scope is mostly limited beyond that. 

According to Perspectives of Learning by Philips and Soltis, behaviorists have a limited understanding due to only being able to observe human behavior externally and "because it does not explain how the mind interferes in the processing of information" (Aldanhani & Abu-Ayyash, 2020).

Founding scholars

• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) 
• Slavin (2003) 
• Philip Gough (1972) 
• LaBerge and Samuels (1974)

Jean Piaget: Known for his theory of cognitive development, Piaget proposed that children move through four stages of mental development, with each stage marked by distinct changes in how they think and perceive the world.

Lev Vygotsky: Introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), emphasizing the role of social interaction in cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that learning is a socially mediated process and that more knowledgeable others (teachers, peers) play a significant role in the process of learning.

Influential thinkers

Jerome Bruner: Advocated for discovery learning and the spiral curriculum. Bruner suggested that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.

Key Concepts

Focus on mental processes, cognition, student as thinker and processor of information.

Four stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, and Formal operational. Stages always follow this sequence, but age may vary with different environments and backgrounds of the child

Content of instruction must match the developmental level of the learner. Teachers facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences. In the classroom, a lecture where the teacher repeats the same word or phrase several times would be an example of material being repeated as a stimulus, and cause the brain to form a response to it. The desired response would be to remember it.

Piaget's Developmental Cognitive Structures - Sensorimotor (birth-2y/o), Preoperational (age 2-7y/o), Concrete Operational (age 7-11y/o), Formal Operational (age 11-15y/o). Stages are described from early developmental order of pushing and pulling to carrying out the most intellectual operations (joining together, putting in order. Knowledge is constantly linked with actions or operations or is transformational. This theory supports active learning in the classroom. 

Information Processing: The mind is likened to a computer that processes incoming information, encodes it, stores it, and retrieves it. This concept emphasizes the importance of how learners attend to and work with information effectively.

Schemas: Mental structures that represent some aspect of the world. Schemas are used to organize knowledge and guide cognitive processes like memory, attention, and perception. Teaching strategies can be designed to help students develop and refine their schemas related to language use.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. It involves self-regulation of cognition through planning, monitoring, and evaluating. In TEFL, teaching students how to think about their own learning processes can enhance their ability to acquire and use the language.

According to Blake and Pope, what mattered to Piaget "people process information by connecting prior knowledge and experience, finding patterns and relationships, identifying rules, and generating abstract principles relevant in different applications which implies that transformation produces knowledge that he believed belonged to the constructivism perspective."

Theory in Practice

Cognitive theory revolves around the internal processes that influence learning and understanding. It suggests that learning occurs through active engagement with material, where the mind processes information, stores it, and retrieves it when necessary. This theory emphasizes the role of mental activities such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving. Unlike Behaviorism, which focuses on observable behaviors, Cognitive theory delves into the 'black box' of the mind to understand how learning actually occurs.

Concept Mapping: Helps students organize and represent knowledge of a subject. Concept maps can be used in TEFL to visually display the relationship between different vocabulary words, grammatical structures, or language functions.
Problem-Solving Strategies: Teaching students specific strategies to address language-related problems (e.g., decoding new vocabulary and understanding complex grammatical structures) can enhance their autonomy and efficiency in learning.

Scaffolding: Based on Vygotsky's ZPD, scaffolding involves providing learners with temporary support until they can perform tasks independently. In a language classroom, this might involve guiding students through complex texts or conversations with gradually diminishing assistance.

Encouraging Self-Reflection and Self-Assessment: Students are guided to reflect on their learning processes and assess their own progress. This practice fosters a deeper understanding of their own cognitive processes related to language learning.

Application in Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL)

In the context of Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), Cognitive theory underscores the importance of understanding the internal processes students use to make sense of the English language. Effective TEFL practices based on Cognitive theory might include strategies that support the development of cognitive skills necessary for language acquisition, such as critical thinking, problem-solving in language use, and the development of metacognitive strategies that enable learners to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning. Engaging students in tasks that require them to actively process and use language in meaningful contexts can facilitate deeper linguistic competence and confidence.

Theory limitations

May underestimate children's abilities. Children may be more competent than originally thought to be and can take on more advanced tasks

Can underestimate the role of social context in learning, may not fully address emotional aspects of learning.

While Cognitive theory acknowledges the importance of social interaction to some extent, critics argue that it might not fully capture the social dimensions of learning, such as the role of culture and community.

Cognitive theory primarily focuses on intellectual processes and may underplay the role of emotions and motivation in the learning process.

Major Theorists (Scholars)

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
John Dewey (1859-1952)
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Bartlett (1932) – Schema theory
Louise Rosenblatt (1978) further extended the application of the Schema theory | Transactional/Reader Response Theory

John Dewey: students must find emotional meaning and be given opportunities for reflection (Mcleod, 2024); Lev Vygotsky: community is crucial for allowing students to make meaning with what they learn, as a student’s environment dictates the ways that they think about given issues (Mcleod, 2024). 

Key Concepts 

Understanding the relation between the social world and cognitive development; Significance of culture, role of language, and student’s relationship within this social world; Student-centered and co-constructivist basis of learning; Central role of teacher-student relationship in learning.

Learning occurs when students create meaning from their experiences (the mind creates its own reality) (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Learning influenced by interactions between the learner and environment (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). "Memory is always under construction as a cumulative history of interactions" (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p. 56). Transfer is "facilitated by involvement in authentic tasks anchored in meaningful contexts"" (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p. 56)

This theory focuses on the idea of learners actively constructing knowledge as a result of their experiences. This theory places emphasis on the role of previous knowledge, as the new knowledge gets "constructed" on top of the learner's previous knowledge and experiences. Laurance Splitter writes "Thus characterized, constructivism is silent on the ontological status of what is thereby constructed. It is, fundamentally, concerned with making sense of our experience, i.e. with ‘meaning-making'" (2008, p.139). 

“Constructivism is a theory of learning that emphasizes the active construction of knowledge by individuals” Gunning (2010, as cited in Tracey et al., 2017). Learning occurs by integrating new knowledge when the individual is actively engaged in the learning process. Schema Theory credited by Bartlett is also another application in the field of reading where people organize everything by what they know in a schemata (Tracy & Morrow, 2017).
 

Examples in Practice

In second grade, we've been studying penguins and are transitioning to learning about animal classifications and habitats. Recognizing past struggles with students understanding habitats, I'm planning a constructivist approach to teaching this concept. This involves creating interactive learning stations representing various habitats like forests, deserts, oceans, and grasslands. Each station will feature props and images depicting the habitat and its inhabitants, allowing students to freely explore while I facilitate engagement and observation to construct their understanding. Additionally, students will create narratives about animals in each habitat, encouraging imagination and highlighting characteristics and adaptations. We'll deepen understanding by collaboratively creating miniature habitats, discussing animals needs within them. Role-play activities will further enhance comprehension as students embody different animal roles and interact with their habitats, fostering firsthand experiences and constructivist learning. Constructivist learning theory emphasizes the role of social interaction, the authenticity of learning experiences, and the degree of student centeredness in the learning process. This year I have also started using breakout/escape style activities to challenge my students’ thinking (Breakout EDU) – these activities promote collaborative problem-solving and critical thinking skills from all students. Students have to use their pre-established schemas, in a real-world situation, to apply what they know to solve the problem(s). Nell K. Duke, a contemporary educator and researcher, has also designed project-based learning that is aligned to research and promotes creating classroom environments that engage children in learning for a larger purpose. Designed for second-grade students, Project PLACE (Project-approach to literacy and Civic Engagement), has units available at: https://www.nellkduke.org/project-place-units. This year, we used the Economics unit and students sold their own good to gain an understanding of key economics concepts. 

Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is an effective means of exploring content in the classroom through the use of constructivism as a guiding learning theory. IBL allows students to learn by doing, while also maintaining the teacher-student relationship in the learning process. One idea of this is providing groups of students with different hypothesis. While this might sound like a science activity, it could be used in any class, including English. For example, the lesson could be rooted in exploring the roots of different words, like "athlete." The task would be to have students make a prediction about the origins of their assigned word. Then, they would research the etymology of their selected word and piece together its history. At the end of the lesson, students would reflect on why they guessed what they did and what they learned from researching the word, making them construct new knowledge on top of the old. Also, it engages the student with internalization, an important part of this learning theory (Zhou & Brown, 2015, p.33). 

Constructivism is a process of learning by experience, experimenting and using information previously learned to create new understandings. Learners are an active part of the process, but it is not just processing the information, it is interpreting the information and constructing knowledge. In my classroom, I present a problem, provide some background, but then step back and let the students take over on the project. I will ask guided questions about what they are doing, but I try to not interfere too much. I want them to create their own ideas for the solution to the problem.

• Inferencing- a process of filling in the gaps within comprehension
• Reciprocal teaching/collaborative learning
• Activating prior knowledge
• Metacognition graphic organizers “Thinking about my thinking”
• Inquire-based learning
  • Questioning
  • Formulating a hypothesis
  • Problem-based approach
  • Collect data to test a hypothesis
  • Draw conclusions
• Scaffolding—the assistance that adults and more peers provide during learning episodes, breaking down the problem into steps, modeling by example, and allowing the student to grow in independence as a learner (Slavin (1997, Tracey, et al., 2017).
• Webbing
• Vocabulary activities
• Anticipation guides
   

Limitations

Some assert that teaching with an approach based in constructivism lacks structure, and teachers sacrifice hands-on education and structure by placing learning in the hands of the student (Mcleod, 2024). 

Society and the environment are not the same, so students' or learners' developmental structures “enter and leave various stages according to which they are located or have not developed the logical or conceptual equipment to be able to tackle certain types of problems through experience, therefore lacking fundamental concepts” (Phillips & Soltis, 2009).

Passive learning has been observed, which goes against what Vygotskey argued. Overall, much of this theory is based on work that is not entirely empirical, which causes doubts about validity. 

Another factor is the relevance of culture in this theory. The application of this theory to all cultures is debatable, as some cultures may find "observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills" than the use of scaffolding (Zhou & Brown, 2015, p.36). 

Major Theorists (Scholars) 

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) 
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) 
John Dewey (1859-1952) 
 

Carl Rogers: all people could achieve self-actualization and achieve their goals if they were provided with an environment that fostered genuineness, acceptance, and empathy (Mcleod, 2024). 

John Dewey: learning must be made relevant to students’ lives in order to promote effective and lasting learning (Waddington & Weeth Feinstein, 2016). 

Key Concepts

Students will acheive self-actualization through student choice, fostering engagement, self evaluation, hands on learning experiences, and a safe learning environment. Teachers must focus on developing responsible learning choices, providing motivation, allowing for group collaboration and allowing choices within the classroom.

All learners possess free will and the ability to express it as they see fit (Holt, 2023). The humanistic approach views people as inherently good, and proponents of this theory believe that all people are capable of seeking the best for themselves and others (Holt, 2023). In order to ensure the most success possible, teachers must create environments in which students are able to maintain a positive emotional state (Holt, 2023). Humanistic theory argues that all students are born with the intrinsic motivation to see out their goals and become the best version of themselves in all areas of existence (Holt, 2023). Students must be stimulated in order to achieve success, as this approach places the emphasis of education on instructing each individual learner as a whole based on their knowledge and interests (Holt, 2023).

Knowledge exists in its active, working form and we put it to work to draw new connections between ourselves and the world that will resolve the complexities we face. 

This theory is rooted in building up Piaget's cognitive stages, turning it into stages of moral development in relation to age ranges. Alongside the moral development of learners, this theory emphasizes the entirety of a student, not just their observable behaviors or cognitive levels. Zhou & Brown write, "The picture of human nature Kolhberg begins with is that humans are inherently communicative and capable of reason" (2015, p.42). Kolhberg connects this to the development of each of the 6 stages of moral development. 

Examples in Practice or contexts in which it would be helpful

In the classroom, middle school is a trying age. They test limits and push boundaries. Sometimes a different approach is necessary and remembering that they are learning how to become adults is part of the process. I know that in any career, including STEM careers, you have to be able to work with other people to get things done. Even if you work for yourself, you still have suppliers and customers you need to work with. It is important for students to think about their place in the community and give them the tools they need to be able to collaborate with others. Therefore, it is important to talk about the "human" side of a career and help give them tools they will need like respect, responsibility, and how to handle transitions.

Rather than simply reiterating classic examples of the scientific method or doing generic demonstrations in the lab, many of which are not relevant to their lives or interests, I am planning on giving my students an assignment in which they run their own experiments about any scientific question they want to answer. This way, ideally, students will be more likely to find deeper personal meaning and apply the scientific method to something that piques their interests. It is my goal to have students enjoy learning about the scientific method, as it can certainly be a bit monotonous.

In the English classroom, exploration of short stories, or novels, combined with discussion activities could utilize this learning theory. For example, the exploration of Edgar Allan Poe's The Tell-Tale Heart could be followed up with group discussions about the role of guilt on a conscious mind. There is not much room for discussing the morality of what the narrator does to the old man in the story; however, it could be used as a talking point for what could have prevented the narrator from getting to that point, which could be discussions rooted in exploring protective factors, social networks, and the role of mentors in one's life. Perhaps the best way to utilize this theory is to read Poe's work with an accompanying mentor text, such as And of Clay We Are Created by Isabel Allende, which has a much more clear moral discussion. This activity would promote a positive moral atmosphere in the classroom and allow learners to engage with positive emotion. 

Another opportunity is to make the connection between moral development and the idea of governance. Ofra Mayseless and Arie Kizel write, "personal spiritual growth is often not limited to the experiences of the individual. Such growth often permeates to other circles in one’s life and affects one’s choices and behavior in intimate relations with family and friends and communities and in civic engagement" (2022, p.4). Showing the connection between a governing body and the need for ethical/moral growth is important, which might be best taught in a government classroom in high school. They could revist the Greek scholars and philosophers that worked on the foundation of such ideas and extend this to critical conversations in the classroom. 

Project-Based Learning. The Avalon School in Minnesota has a curriculum designed entirely around students being the driving force of their own education. Students are able to work independetly, together, and with mentor teachers to design projects related to the curriculum. As a result, students can plan for their own future by learning about the topics and industries that they want to spend their lives working in. 

Limitations

The obvious limitation of the humanistic approach is that curriculum is often too restrictive to provide students with the type of freedom that is required to employ it in the classroom. Learning is highly subjective under this approach, and it would be too difficult to consistently utilize this approach while still ensuring that all students are learning the core information that they need to learn.

Assumes time and mental/emotional capacity of the teacher.

'Centering' is a difficult concept to implement/accomplish. Students are not experts in any field, and some feel that too much autonomy (as well as a lack of structure) could lead to students not learning all their need to know. Concerns about too much of a focus on what students want to know that they won't learn other about other subjects that could still benefit them in life.

Conventional distinctions between the scientific and technological domains of inquiry may involve a false dichotomy. Values may not be the same for all people.

Learning via choice rather than set information (curriculum). 
Difficult to make sure every student obtained the same knowledge. 
Lack of structure (this would be hard for me personally to give that kind of free rein). 

Essay:

Humanism, Socioculturalism and Young Children in Regards to Making Sense of the Diverse World.

Humanism theory constitutes a person seeing learning as a natural desire with the goal of achieving self actualization. Humanism is how the individual learns and the personal relationship with the idea. It is the human potential and growth of the learner. Empathy can help guide students so that learning and understanding the world will be a better guide for them. This is in contrast to sociocultural learning. Sociocultural learning involves how the world influences individual development. Learning becomes a social process. Successful development occurs through interaction with people that possess more knowledge and/or skill than the learner. Piaget and Lev Vygotsky were proprietors of sociocultural theory.

WEB Dubois according to Christopher Cameron in his article has been quoted as saying in regard to Dubois, he began to count and classify the facts concerning the American negro and the way to his betterment through human interaction.”(Cameron). Dubois believed in the basic principles of African American humanism which were that humans are responsible for their own condition and changing the world. He believed that humans have grown or evolved from earlier times from the beginning of time educationally and socially. African American humans share an appreciation for black culture and the race which can help them better the world while changing it. African Americans that believe in humanism are mostly non believers. Surprisingly or not surprisingly Dubois was agnostic before teaching at Atlanta University in 1897. In his 1956 letter to his friend Herbert Apetheker, Dubois said of African Americans, "Absolute truth and his faith in human beings to use science and reason to change the world”(Cameron) Dubois and his lack of belief in Christianity said that he saw no evidence of God influencing human life but saw evidence of humans had influenced human life. Although this letter and article discuss Christianity and the idea of African American humanism on Christianity, the central concept is still the same. Humanism will affect how the person sees themself in the world and how their perception of how they interact with the world helps them to understand the world.

Lev Vygotsky believed that parents, teachers, peers, caregivers and all of society and the world can influence the cognitive development of a learner(child). He believed in the more knowledgeable leader that would guide the learner through strategies to help the learner acquire knowledge and understand a concept. He consistently discussed the ZPD, the zone of proximal development which was the ability of a learner to extend themselves beyond what they know. This zone incorporates what the learner gets from the interaction of those around them. In the study done in the article, A Sociocultural Framework for Studying Children’s Understandings of Racial/Ethnic Diversity, Caryn C Park discusses how Piaget’s developmental theories did not incorporate social and cultural factors when looking at development and gaining knowledge. Her study looked at how preschoolers during the observations understand and make sense of differences both racially and ethnically in the classroom. According to Vygotsky language is important because it influences the mental functioning in the way a person learns. He also believed that the language and speech that we use to discuss racial and ethnic differences is an important tool in how diverse learners learn. He also believes in symbolic tools when incorporating any socio-cultural activities. Park discusses some of these tools as skin colored crayons and not using language like melting pot when teaching preschool students. Park says that “a child is able to do in isolation(actual development)versus what she or he could potentially accomplish with the assistance of others(ZPD)(Park).

Park tested a group of preschoolers at Chelsea School on the metro west coast. The students were between the ages of 3-5. The racial makeup of the group was mostly European Americans and a few non white participants. The school itself is heterogeneous ethnically and diverse. After observing students on multiple occasions, Park recognized that the children with their teachers were able to stretch upwardly in their social interactions with other students. Their ZPD guided students to see the opportunities to use their own experiences to learn and expand their knowledge in regards to new information about racial and ethnic diversity. Park was able to analyze how the classroom’s physical environment, tools, symbols and language helped them to understand the diversity of their environment. She recognized her observations through the peer interactions between the preschoolers. The students however made connections to their environment in regards to the diversity of their lessons or the multicultural images in the classrooms. Can this be an assumption that with this age group they are innocent and are oblivious to differences ethnically. Park recognized there were no exclusionary behaviors and there were not any students that showed incidents of negative actions that were racially motivated. Within the study there were not any students that had a conflict due to racialized actions or racial symbolisms. The one finding that Park highlighted was that ¼ of the white students segregated themselves. Another quarter of the white students interacted with other cultures and races. Again can Park’s study prove anything due to the fact that the students were extremely young and had limited interaction with society as a whole individually.

From the small chunk of results from Park’s study we can conclude that the parents of these students may have guided them in learning and understanding of the diverse world. It is my assumption that the parents of these world knowledgeable students may have taught them empathy in regards to others. Dubois believed that humans have the potential within themselves not with outside factors to be good. Can the preschoolers have this potential already at their young age? Can the influences of their teachers and their diverse environment help them to expand their ZPD and make sense of this diverse world. I developed a black history month curriculum for our teachers to use as morning breaks. The teachers show the students a video and there is a discussion that closes out the break. Students will need to bring their own connections and understanding of the information(humanism) and the teacher will discuss the lesson to help the students expand and understand the lesson in order to incorporate it into their knowledge (sociocultural theory). Although these two theories are contrasted, in both the Park study and in my BHM curriculum they can work concurrently.

Cameron, Christopher (2023). How WEB DuBois Helped Pioneer African American Humanist Thought. University Press of Mississippi. http/lithub.com

Noel, La Tonya & Whaley, Arthur L. (2012). Sociocultural Theories, Academic Achievement and African American Adolescents in a Multicultural Context: A Review of the Cultural Compatibility Perspective, Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 81(1), pp. 25-38. Https: doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation81.1.0025

Park, Caryn C(2011). Young Children Making Sense of Racial and Ethnic Differences: A Sociocultural Approach, 48(2). https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831210382889

Links to resources:

https://admin.umt.edu.pk/Media/Site/STD1/FileManager/OsamaArticle/26august2015/Bandura1999HP.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0361476X19304370

https://bempsiunisba.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/pt_bandura.pdf

A breakdown of social cognitive theory (relatively youth friendly!):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=128Ts5r9NRE

Loosely related in Bandura’s definition of social cognitive theory is behaviorism, followed is an article looking at moral development (also part of the personal aspect in the social cognitivism triad):

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027322971830025X

Founding scholars

David Allen Kolb (1939-) experience is a crucial element of the development of knowledge construction, and learning occurs as a result of discovery and active participation (Kurt, 2020). Kolb defines experiential learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience,” (Kurt, 2020). Developed the Experiential Learning Cycle, which includes concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Kolb's cycle provides a structured framework for understanding how experiences lead to learning (Abelson et al., 2021).

John Dewey: His work on experiential education emphasized learning through experience and the importance of community and democracy in education.

Kurt Hahn, founder of Outward Bound, stressed the value of outdoor education and challenge for personal development.

Influential thinkers

Carl Rogers: Also influential in this area, particularly regarding the facilitation of learning environments that support personal growth and learning.

Key Concepts

Experiential learning theory is a framework that emphasizes the importance of direct experience in the learning process. The key idea is that individuals learn best through active engagement with experiences, reflection on those experiences, and the application of knowledge gained. Kolb's four-stage model views learning as an integrated process. All four stages are mutually supportive because Kolb believes that effective learning is a cyclic process that involves experiencing, reflecting, thinking and acting. 

This theory is concerned with achieving knowledge as a result of "making meaning as a result of direct experience" (Zhou & Brown, 2015, p.52). A crucial element to this learning experience is the four stage process - experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation. It is important that learners go through all the stages, as experience and reflection does little without also going through conceptualization and experimentation. Unlike constructivism, this theory emphasizes responsibility on the part of the learner, dealing less with the importance of the a teacher-student relationship. Instead, this theory expects a decent amount of background knowledge on the part of the learner. 

4-stage learning cycle that learners go through during the experiential learning process. Stages of the Cycle: Experience; Critical Reflection; Active Experimentation; Abstract Conceptualization

Concrete Experience: Engaging in a new experience or revisiting an old one.

Reflective Observation: Reflecting on the experience to identify inconsistencies between experience and understanding.

Abstract Conceptualization: Forming theories or generalizations based on the reflections.

Active Experimentation: Applying what has been learned to the world around them to see what happens.

Learn by doing, connecting theories and knowledge to real-world situations. Students are active participation in education. Continuous cycle of inquiry, reflection, analysis, and synthesis. by participating in learning, students are engaged in real learning experiences and are active participants. Integrated learning beyond the classroom. Experiential learning can increase student engagement, improve learning effectiveness and enhance work and life skills. The teacher’s role in experiential learning is to create learning experiences and help facilitate the learning process, rather than direct instruction. Four modes of learning: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation.

Theory in Practice

In the beginning of 2nd grade, we start learning about plants and seeds. Using experiential learning theory, students can understand the stages of a plant’s life cycle through experiential learning activities. Students could first begin with planting seeds – using soil, seeds, and pots – this hands-on activity would allow students the opportunity to experience the beginning stage of a plant’s life cycle. Throughout the growing stages, students can observe and document changes in a plant journal which is encouraging reflective observations throughout the process. Once the plants beginning to grow, they could be transferred to our school garden where students would continue to document and observe stages of plant growth in a natural setting. Once the plants are fully grown, students can use their plant journal to create a visual representation of the plant’s life cycle using art materials to demonstrate their understanding throughout the project. They could then share these projects with the entire class and we could continue to build on each other’s knowledge and experiences to share observations, questions, and discoveries.

Role playing with intentional reflection is a valuable way to incorporate this theory into practice. Having students make their own understandings of a play (Shakespeare, preferably) and act out their understandings would be a good start. After having exposure to how other students understand the content, the learner could have time to revisit their own understandings and make alterations as they see fit. Then, they could act out a second time with a following time for reflection on the activity as a whole. I think this embodies what experiential learning is all about, as the Institute for experiential learning says this theory “describes the ideal process of learning, invites you to understand yourself as a learner, and empowers you to take charge of your own learning and development” (2024).

Rooted in the philosophy that knowledge is created through the transformation of experience, it offers a powerful framework for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL). This approach is especially relevant in language learning, where real-world engagement and practical application of language skills can significantly enhance learning outcomes.

Project-Based Learning (PBL): PBL involves students in projects that require them to use English in real-life situations. For instance, planning a travel itinerary for an English-speaking visitor, including descriptions of attractions, accommodations, and transportation, encourages the use of language skills in a practical context.

Role-Play and Simulations: These activities simulate real-life scenarios where students must use English to navigate the situation. Role-play in a restaurant, hotel check-in, or airport scenario forces students to apply language skills spontaneously, enhancing fluency and confidence.

Community Engagement: Involving students in community projects or volunteer work where English is the medium of communication offers authentic language practice and fosters a sense of connection and purpose.

Cultural Exchange: Activities such as film nights, international dinners, or discussion clubs conducted in English provide immersive experiences that deepen linguistic and cultural understanding.

Reflective Journals: Encouraging students to keep journals in English about their learning experiences supports the reflective observation stage of Kolb's cycle, promoting deeper learning and personal growth.

Field courses, study abroad, mentor-based internships, cooperative education, service learning, role play, simulations and gaming, e-learning

Benefits

• Integrates Language Skills: Experiential learning naturally integrates reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills, providing a holistic language learning experience.
• Promotes Engagement: By involving students in meaningful, real-world activities, this approach increases motivation and engagement.
• Develops Critical Thinking: The reflective component encourages deeper thinking about language use and its implications.
• Fosters Autonomy: Students learn to take initiative, make decisions, and reflect on their learning, promoting independence.
• Cultural Sensitivity: Engaging with real-world scenarios and cultures enhances understanding and appreciation of diversity.

Theory limitations

This theory is hard to implement in a majority of classroom settings. That, however, is a practical limitation. Other limitations revolve around contention of the stages required for a leaner to go through. There is debate as to whether reflection is required for knowledge. Also, some believe this theory focuses too much on individuals and does not account for role society/group settings may factor into the role of the learner. 

Requires careful planning and access to resources, which can be challenging in resource-limited settings.

Not all students may find experiential learning methods as effective as others, requiring adaptations to meet diverse needs.

Traditional testing methods may not adequately capture the depth of learning that occurs, necessitating the development of alternative assessment strategies.

Does not account for non-reflective experience. Focuses on a single learner and does not mention how that learner fits into a group. No discussion on how a group may learn through a common experience. 

Teaching based on this theory is highly time-consuming. Approaches may not be structured enough to meet the needs of some students. Another potential drawback to this approach is that it relies heavily on the individual experiences of each student, which can make it difficult to provide meaningful one-on-one feedback.

Founding scholars

Jack Mezirow (1923-2014)

Jack Mezirow is considered the main architect of Transformative Learning theory (TLT), Mezirow proposed that transformative learning occurs when individuals critically examine their own beliefs and experiences, leading to a shift in their perspective. This process, he argued, is facilitated by experiences that prompt a reevaluation of how one understands the world.

Eduard Lindeman: Although not directly a founder of TLT, Lindeman laid important groundwork by emphasizing the significance of experience in adult education. He believed that adult learning is rooted in the context of one's life and experiences, setting the stage for the later development of TLT.

Influential thinkers

Patricia Cranton: Worked on understanding and promoting transformative learning in educational settings.

Stephen Brookfield: Explored critical thinking in adults and its role in fostering transformative learning.

Key Concepts

Stages of Transformative Learning (TL)

1. experiencing a disorienting dilemma; 
2. doing self-examination; 
3. critically assessing your assumptions; 
4. planning a course of action; 
5. gaining new knowledge or skills to implement your plan; 
6. exploring and trying new roles; 
7. building self-efficacy

TL is when people learn new things and rethink what they already know, hence creating new meaning in learning. They might even change their perspective or the way they see the world as they learn and think about new ideas (WGU, 2020) (Baumgartner, 2019). 

Critical Reflection: At the heart of TLT, critical reflection involves examining and questioning one's own assumptions, beliefs, and values. In the teaching English as a foreign language context, this might mean reflecting on cultural biases or preconceptions about language and communication.

Perspective Transformation: This is the process of changing one’s viewpoint or understanding of the world, often as a result of critical reflection. For English as a foreign language learners, this could translate into a newfound appreciation for diverse cultures and languages.

Dialogic Learning: Learning through dialogue emphasizes the role of discourse in transformation. For teaching English as foreign language settings, dialogic learning encourages learners to engage in conversations that challenge their perspectives and foster deeper understanding.

This theory focuses on the transformation of perspective as a result of connecting new knowledge to old knowledge. Cruicial to this theory, however, is that the learner be an adult or a young adult who much face the unpleasant experience of changing their perspective after having been exposed to new knowledge that changes their understanding of reality.

Peter Howie and Richard Bagnall write, "After a transformation in a frame of reference, a person is said to view themselves and their world in a superior manner to that previously, as a result of their assumptions and expectations having been challenged and modified to better fit their reality or context," indicating the importance of the adult facing the experience with critical thinking and reflection (2013, p.5-6).

Theory in Practice

Since transformative learning theory applies to adult education, we could examine a graduate course focused on the psychology of education. At the beginning of the course, students could be asked to reflect on their own beliefs and assumptions about education, learning and teaching. Through written reflections, class discussions, and interactive activities, students would identify their existing perspectives and consider how these influences their understanding of educational psychology. Throughout the course, students could encounter challenging concepts and theories and then be encouraged to critically analyze these concepts, questioning their assumptions and exploring alternative perspectives. Students could participate in experiential learning activities that simulate real-world educational contexts to gain insight into different perspectives and experiences within the educational system. Students would develop critical thinking skills and deepen their understanding of how psychological principles are applied to education practice through analyzing and engaging in problem-based learning activities that require them to apply theories to real-life educational situations. Throughout the process, students would also be required to keep reflective journals, documenting their learning experiences, insights and reflections and then collaborate with peers in small groups to discuss/support each other’s learning. At the end of the course, a reflective paper could be written to demonstrate the reflection of their own beliefs and assumptions about education and how that has evolved throughout the learning process.

Adult Education Programs: These can be designed to not only teach English but also to engage learners in discussions about cultural differences, stereotypes, and personal beliefs, encouraging them to reflect on and question these viewpoints.

Professional Development: Training sessions for EFL teachers can focus on reflective practices, such as keeping journals or participating in discussion groups that explore teaching challenges and insights, promoting a deeper understanding of their role and assumptions.

Kaowiwattanakul’s Study (2020): This study illustrates the application of TLT in EFL through the assessment of students' global mindedness before and after exposure to TLT-focused lessons. The study utilized literature and reflective journals to encourage students to connect language learning with personal development and cultural understanding. Such practices underscore the transformative potential of combining language learning with critical reflection on global issues.

Adult Learning, as described in Cranton's book "Regardless of the context, adult learners are mature, socially responsible individuals who participate in sustained informal or formal activities that lead them to acquire new knowledge, skills, or values; elaborate on existing knowledge, skills, or values; revise their basic beliefs and assumptions; or change the way they see some aspect of themselves or the world around them" (pg. 19) I think this is a good example of all of us as adult learners. We are better able to think for ourselves around different topics and come to our own conclusions. There was also discussion about what it means to be "transformative" which is subjective to each individual.

Theory limitations

One is that the process of transformative learning can be incredibly time-consuming and requires a great deal of effort to be meaningful to learners. Stringent curriculum requirements can make this approach highly difficult to implement en masse in a classroom environment. Also, at its core, this theory requires learners to be open-minded and willing to accept potentially drastic opposition to their thoughts and beliefs. Unfortunately, some learners would simply be too resistant to challenges to their personal beliefs to gain any value from a teacher-guided transformative learning journey. 

A limitation of this theory is that it is applied too loosely, not having concrete theoretical foundations. It is because of this that Peter Howie and Richard Bagnall write, "what is described as transformative learning is really just good learning . . . Rather than a rejection of the theory as not adding anything to learning, the argument of this paper is that the theory is better understood as a conceptual metaphor" (2013, p. 11). This theory functions better as a metaphor for how adult learning occurs rather than a clear theoretical framework for what takes place for knowledge to occur.

Emotional Challenge: The process of questioning deeply held beliefs can be emotionally difficult and unsettling for learners.

Accessibility: Requires a level of cognitive and emotional maturity, making it less applicable to younger learners.

Founding scholars

George Siemens (1970- present), 

Stephen Dowes (1959-present)

George Siemens and Stephen Downes are pivotal figures in connectivism, introducing concepts like networked learning and the role of online communities in education. They argue that the digital age demands a new approach to learning, one that leverages the power of technology to connect learners with information and each other.

Key Concepts

Connectivism is a learning theory that is continuously evolving and improving as technology and educators improve together. The educators in this theory are the students and technology. The students' learning is based on their actions and determination using an online program that monitors where a student excels and has troubles based on the curriculum. Using this information it changes its curriculum to improve/change the questions the students answer intending to improve weak areas the students may have.

Learning involves creating and navigating networks. This view expands the concept of learning from individual memorization or understanding to include the capacity to access and traverse diverse sources of information.

Technology is not just a tool but a fundamental component of the learning process, enabling connections and access to information.

In a rapidly changing world, being able to update one's knowledge with the most current information is more valued than the accumulation of static knowledge.

Connectivism relies heavily on the use of digital tools in education (Kurt, 2023). Proponents of this theory argue that modern technology offers the ability for learners to connect with others and experience the benefits of open dialogue, diversity of perspectives, problem-solving, and comprehension of difficult concepts (Kurt, 2023). The concepts of nodes and links, drawn from network theory, are central to the connectivist approach (Kurt, 2023). A node is a source of information, which can include people, organizations, databases, or any other resource that can generate information (Kurt, 2023). Links are routes through which information travels from one node to another, which can include mutual discussions, academic references, hyperlinks, or social ties on networking sites (Kurt, 2023). This approach relies on several core principles, including that learning may come from non-human appliances like AI, information must be current (up-to-date), and that changes in the information climate can impact what we know (Kurt, 2023). In a connectivist classroom, the teacher acts as a guide who helps students learn how to navigate the learning experience (Kurt, 2023). 

Theory in Practice

When considering the application of connectivism in teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), it becomes clear that this theory can offer innovative approaches. According to Howell and Ding (2016), connectivism can enrich TEFL by recognizing the distributed nature of knowledge and the importance of networked learning communities. Teachers in this framework act more as facilitators or curators, guiding learners through a rich landscape of linguistic resources and connections.

In any learning environment technology can be used as a method for learning. Khan Academy, Duolingo, Prodigy and Code.org are programs that students use to learn from. These programs provide questions, the students answer the questions and are graded on how closely and correct they are to the program's answer. The further from correctness the student is the more the program pushes that subject. The students are working at their own pace with the idea, that if they want to do that work now they are going to retain more information than being taught when they do not want to learn and may not pay attention.

Creating a context for resources, such as Web 2.0 resources, user-generated content, library resources and scholarly literatures, with in information literacy instruction, which are part of a student's personal learning networks. 

I would like to create two assignments that align with Downes’ focus area of connectivism. I will have students use an AI tool to construct a website to present information on a topic of their choice that relates to course materials. This assignment will provide students with a hands-on experience revolving around a powerful modern technological tool. Also, I could implement an assignment in which students attempt to fact-check AI tools. This way, students would learn about the power of AI while also learning how to use it with caution, as there are known limitations to this technology.

Simulations are a great method for utilizing this theory. Simulations prompt students to engage with the task on their own, without explicit facilitating from the teacher. This helps shift the responsibility to the learner. Also, students can tackle simulations in group settings to increase the collaborative component of this theory. For example, different groups can accomplish different simulations and have critical discussions afterwards to discuss their findings. To really embrace the theory, students could publish their findings in a classroom social media page to imitate a scientific learning community. 

The design of learning environments through a connectivism lens, encourages collaboration, networking, and the exploration of multiple perspectives. When I try and think of examples or relate to connectivism learning – my graduate college courses are what comes to mind. In some ways, I feel like online graduate work relies very little on the teacher (professor) passing along information, but instead, guiding us (students) in the direction of collecting knowledge, sharing the knowledge with a network of others, and collaborating upon others’ thinking to expand our own. We also have to evaluate the credibility of sources, synthesize information from multiple sources, and make connections between the different ideas and perspectives.

Theory limitations

"An instructional theory, not a learning theory" (Kropf, 2013, p. 15)

One is that there is the possibility that if this approach becomes more mainstream, then students in less privileged districts may be left behind. Modern technology is highly valuable, but districts that don’t have the means to provide their students with as many opportunities to use sophisticated technology will be negatively impacted. Also, older or less technologically advanced teachers may be resistant to the mass implementation of sophisticated technology in their classrooms. Though students would likely enjoy these opportunities, it may be difficult to get these teachers to buy in on rapid changes. It will be important for schools to allocate resources to properly educate their teachers on ways that they can incorporate 21st century technology in ways that best benefit their students.

Principles of connectivism may not be enough to consider it a new learning theory. Not a complete explanation of how students learn. 

Its heavy reliance on technology and the internet means that those without access or with limited digital literacy may find it challenging to benefit from this approach. Furthermore, the theory's emphasis on digital networks can sometimes underestimate the value of face-to-face interactions and traditional learning methods. Additionally, the digital divide remains a significant barrier, limiting the theory's applicability across different socio-economic backgrounds.

Critics like Gentner (2018) also highlight potential downsides of digital connectivity in education, such as distractions from mobile devices, the risk of cognitive overload, and the potential for social isolation. These criticisms underscore the need for a balanced approach that incorporates digital tools thoughtfully and effectively, without losing sight of the broader educational goals and the well-being of learners.

Relatively new as a learning theory. Requires access to technology, which may not be universally available. Critics argue that it may prioritize connections and information over deeper understanding and critical thinking. Does not account for individual ethical student needs.

2-29-2024

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge that involves using different methods, checking validity, and scope. It includes the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion.

The two most important aspects of this theory are critical thinking and reflection. When exploring different types of knowledge, it is important to look at the process of how people make sense of the information they have and integrate that information into what becomes knowledge. Learning theories examine what motivates people to learn, and what helps or hinders that learning.

We have learned about many different learning theories, and what has been helpful is to understand the concept behind each and apply parts of each to different dynamic learning situations in the classroom especially when focusing on how different students learn.  As we look at how education has changed we can focus on specific needs of our students.

When taking individualized learning and putting it into practice teachers can adapt their lessons to accommodate the needs of each student and find a method so that the students can learn at their own pace.

When I think of putting a lesson into practice I will use traditional learning resources in combination with on-line tools, allowing students to find content that applies to them and learn at their own pace. By using technology with hands-on projects, this will aid the students in designing their own investigations, so they can come up with a problem, critique it, and then solve it, either on their own or in a group. This can be applied to different subjects, such as math, reading, language arts, and science or a combination of those. In an individual lesson this encourages creativity and interest. So putting this into practice I think of an example where we studied the sinking of the Titanic. We posed the question, what happened to the Titanic. Students had to do some on-line research investigating what caused the Titanic to sink. They were able to look at the fact that the Titanic was supposed to be unsinkable. It was the most modern ship of its day. The Titanic had all the modern conveniences for first class passengers to travel across the ocean and get to the United States in record time. After doing research they would learn the history behind the famous ship and then the science as well. A question incorporating science might be how the Titanic moved so quickly across the water. So in addition to studying and answering questions in relation to how the Titanic sank, they could investigate and explore the science of getting the ship to move at record speeds using steam, and the problems they encountered. The last part of the assignment used their language arts skills as they were required to write a report based on their research. They could demonstrate their learning by other means, for example, writing a poem, doing a skit in a group, or giving a presentation.

Some limitations of constructivism include the lack of structure, because some students need a structured environment in order to be successful. Students also need organization and order. Another limitation is that some teachers may lack experience in using this theory and putting it into practice, it takes a lot of time to prepare. Some students might not have enough prior knowledge to help them to successfully complete the tasks.

Some limitations of epistemology are that it does not address issues centered around reality or ethics. An example is when students are limited in reasoning and having difficulty analyzing ideas and drawing conclusions.

Resources:

Individualized Learning; The future of education. (2024). Stand together. https;//standtogether.org/news/individualized-learning-the-future-of-education/

Labbas, R., (2013) Epistemology in Education; Epistemological Development Trajectory. Journal of International Education and Leadership, V. 3, N.  2

Founding scholars

Paulo Freire, often regarded as the father of Critical Pedagogy, introduced concepts such as the "banking model" of education, which he critiqued for treating students as passive recipients of knowledge. Freire advocated for a "problem-posing" education that encourages active participation and critical thinking among students. He was influenced by Karl Marx’s ideas on social structures and class struggle.

Influential thinkers

bell hooks is an influential thinker in Critical Pedagogy, emphasized the importance of engaging with the intersectionality of race, class, and gender in education, advocating for a learning environment that is inclusive and challenges systemic oppression.

Key Concepts

Critical Pedagogy goes beyond individual transformation, as seen in traditional learning theories, aiming instead for societal change. It challenges oppressive societal conditions through education, advocating for collective political struggle and a more democratic society. The approach is seen as a “pedagogy of inclusion," aiming to empower marginalized students by giving them a voice.

Theory in Practice

Barnawi's (2010) work illustrates the potential for Critical Pedagogy in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, suggesting that Critical Pedagogy can connect classroom learning with broader societal issues, thereby fostering social transformation. This involves preparing teachers to foster critical consciousness among learners, enabling them to resist domination and oppression.

Effective Critical Pedagogy practices include problem-posing education, critical intervention tasks, and fostering a mutual dialogue between teachers and students. This approach promotes a more inclusive and democratic classroom culture.

Theory limitations

The research by Mahmoodarabi & Khodabakhsh (2015) sheds light on the challenges of implementing Critical Pedagogy in EFL classrooms. The study reveals that teachers' awareness and implementation of Critical Pedagogy are influenced by their academic degrees and teaching experience, with systemic educational norms often favoring traditional methods of instruction. Implementing Critical Pedagogy in EFL settings requires consideration of cultural and contextual factors, underscoring the need for Critical Pedagogy approaches tailored to the specific needs and experiences of teachers and students.

There's a clear need for professional development programs focused on Critical Pedagogy to prepare teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary to apply Critical Pedagogy principles effectively. Creating collaborative networks among EFL teachers can facilitate the sharing of experiences, strategies, and resources, helping to implement Critical Pedagogy more broadly.

Further research into Critical Pedagogy’s impacts on student outcomes, teacher-student relationships, and classroom dynamics is essential for understanding and enhancing its application in diverse educational contexts.

Graduate students' presentations on a variety of learning theory topics are on the page https://nmu.edu/institutionaleffectiveness/ed-504-student-presentations.

Student-produced slides presentations explaining learning theories can be found on this page: https://nmu.edu/institutionaleffectiveness/informational-slides-learning-theory. 

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Members of the course "Psychology of Education," ED 504, Northern Michigan University, Winter 2024, supplied the content of this webpage. Students include: 

• Jennifer Anderson
• Zachary Celello
• Erika Greeley
• Jenny Irvine
• Thomas J
• Karina Johnson, NMU Theatre & Dance Faculty
• Tyler J Markle
• Heather Mitchell
• Stacee O'Dell
• Jenny Prom
• Mallory Scanlon
• Kari Strand, Science Teacher at Wakefield Marenisco School District
• Kenyatta Wilcox

Additional students contributed as well but did not wish to be individually named.